Robert D. Strom,
Professor of Educational Psychology

Mentoring in Higher Education

The career goal for most of my graduate students is to become a professor. It might be assumed that success is guaranteed because these men and women are intellectually capable, eager to learn, and willing to persevere. However, getting ready for a position in higher education is more complicated today than it was during the past because expectations of faculty are undergoing significant changes. There is uncertainty and disagreement regarding the attitudes, skills, and priorities professors need to carry out their responsibilities in the emerging technological environment. Future faculty now prepare themselves for the professoriate by taking a course on college teaching that explores the reforms proposed for universities in relation to the traditional purposes, obligations, and preferred work styles of professors. In my opinion, these curriculum initiatives should be augmented by less formal lessons that can best be taught outside the classroom by mentors whose flexibility has enabled them to adjust to change. A mentor is someone who demonstrates concern for the well being and development of another person beginning their career in the same field. I will describe the mentoring goals that concern me most and offer some explanation regarding my efforts to achieve them.

Maintain an Optimistic Attitude Toward People, Events, and the Future
When I ask elementary and high school teachers in my classes what they want to be remembered for by their students, most of them identify nonintellectual qualities that are instrumental for building close relationships, including: honesty, patience, readiness to listen, empathy, friendship, and a sense of humor. My own list of aspirations is much the same with the addition of maintaining an optimistic attitude. Optimism influences every aspect of my life. For example, I view students from the Asian premise that everyone can do well in the classroom if they are willing to work hard and persist with the work following failure. This point of view assumes that people are able to succeed in most subject areas when tutorial help is available. That the Asian premise is warranted seems obvious from the record of high achievement commonly attained by students from the Pacific Rim (Stevenson and Stigler 1992). A less optimistic premise, which I was educated to believe but chose to reject, is that some students are bound to do poorly in the classroom because they lack intelligence that cannot be compensated for by effort. My students know that they can count on me to see possibilities in them, offer honest advice, and encourage the discipline required to become a scholar.

I want students to realize that having an optimistic outlook can also help them cope with adversity. Optimism and pessimism can be thought of as explanatory styles each of us learn and rely on to interpret troublesome situations. Whereas a pessimist may view failure as permanent, overwhelming, and a sign of weakness, an optimist can perceive the same conditions as a temporary setback, an obstacle that can be overcome by trying again (Seligman 1990). My inclination is to detect the favorable aspect of situations and try to gain insight from disappointing events. In this way, almost every circumstance provides some benefit. I realize that the doctoral program can be a lengthy ordeal with many difficult and stressful steps along the way. These conditions incline some students to become particularly vulnerable to pessimism. Adopting pessimism keeps people of all ages from forming dreams and seeking challenges, and it prevents faculties from achieving healthy morale. Students who are frequently exposed to hopelessness are more likely to lose their creative capacity to perceive possibilities and decide to abandon their goals. The outlook that students need to face the future with confidence should be demonstrated by professors who reflect optimism as their fundamental attitude toward life, relationships, and daily affairs.

Continue Learning in Order to Remain a Valued Source of Guidance
The scope of study my students pursue is much broader than I was able to access at their stage of career preparation. Until recently, developmental psychology focused mostly on childhood and adolescence. A dramatic increase in the length of life has led to concerns about achieving balance in the training of professionals so they are able to support physical and mental health during adulthood and later life. Nevertheless, a time lag exists between knowledge and practice in most fields. For example, less than 1 percent of all primary care physicians in the United States are certified in geriatrics. Yet, a medical school student today can expect that at least half of the patients he or she treats will be over the age of 65 (Perry 1996). The reason for this void in knowledge is the lack of medical school professors whose education includes geriatrics. Similarly, there is a lack of mentors in my specialization of life span development because some professors have chosen not to go beyond the curriculum they studied as graduate students. The desire to continue learning and remaining up-to-date is essential. I am grateful for sabbatical leaves that allowed me to explore adult development and aging studies at the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford in England.

Use Methods of Instruction that Give Students an Active Role in Learning
Doctoral students often wonder whether their performance in the classroom will be recognized by the institution they join as a faculty member. When teaching is undervalued, the tendency of professors is to devote greater attention to research and writing instead of striving to attain a balance of these functions. This predictable shift in preferred activity is underscored by a UCLA survey in 1991 conducted at 393 institutions where 35,000 professors were asked to rank in order 14 kinds of job satisfaction. They ranked 'working with students' at the bottom of the list of their satisfactions (Dey 1991). My feelings about spending time with students are more favorable. Indeed, I start each semester mindful that I am entrusted with the obligation to wisely structure large amounts of other people's time. For me the challenge is to maximize motivation and comprehension by creatively presenting ideas and designing activities that students will see as relevant, practical, and novel. Interacting with students pleases me, and I acknowledge them as an essential source of my learning. I am saddened at the end of each semester by the realization that the unique combination of persons who attended our class will not meet together again. I want my doctoral candidates to discover the satisfactions of the classroom by participating in a teaching internship that includes feedback on their performance from three professors. Insights from the faculty are valuable for students, and the observations allow professors to write letters of recommendation based on evidence of teaching potential.

Student boredom and inattention are often cited as a justification for giving minimal attention to teaching. When students lack the interest required for learning, why should professors devote themselves to instruction? This challenge led me to examine my own behavior. I regard lecturing as an effective way to communicate knowledge, but I recognize this method places students in a passive role. When lectures are merged with active student participation, there is increased motivation and learning. The approach I rely on to achieve this purpose is known as cooperative learning. This type of instruction has been extensively examined including a meta-analysis of more than 500 studies representing the full range of academic disciplines (Johnson and Johnson 1989). Assessments have consistently shown that students who engage in cooperative learning make gains in problem-solving skills, demonstrate a willingness to try new and more difficult tasks, feel an enhanced sense of belonging, express a greater appreciation for culturally different peers, and get along better with their classmates.

Middle school and high school students commonly benefit from cooperative learning, and they expect to encounter similar methods of instruction when they enter higher education. The Arizona State University Faculty Development Program is a key resource for ensuring this continuity and has trained some of us to assist our colleagues. A dramatic example of what can be achieved comes from the University of California at Berkeley. The mathematics faculty wondered what could be done to reduce the high failure rate among aspiring minority scientists. The course in calculus eliminated large numbers of minorities, except for Asian students. A closer look revealed one striking difference: African American students, whose self-reliance got them into college, usually studied alone, while the Asian students formed study groups. The faculty decided to offer workshops that included cooperative learning for minority students enrolled in calculus. The 60 percent failure rate of African-Americans and Hispanics declined, and they began to perform at a level comparable to their Caucasian and Asian classmates (Treisman 1992). It is essential to use new instructional methods when they are proven to be more effective.

Collaborate with Colleagues from Other Disciplines and Countries to Gain a Broader Perspective
One function of being a professor is working with experts from other disciplines, an underrated opportunity for faculty development. Planning school and community projects with students and their mentors from the College of Architecture and Environmental Design and participating as a member of their jury critique panels has expanded my perspective and encouraged me to adopt some of their evaluation techniques. Whenever any of us are willing to call upon colleagues from other fields of study to augment our strengths, there is additional benefit for students and ourselves. I believe that one distinguishing characteristic of a great university is the pride faculty express in the expertise of their peers and the willingness to look to one another for support in teaching and learning. Working abroad is another avenue to developing a broader frame of reference. My outlook has been enhanced by learning opportunities associated with Fulbright research awards to Australia, the Philippines, and Sweden, as well as cross-cultural grants from Germany, Hong Kong, Japan, the Republic of China, and Turkey. Graduate students who obtain an international orientation from their mentors are more likely to build a career that is based on collaboration.

Appreciate the Interdependence that Defines the Collaborative Process
A significant proportion of the doctoral curriculum involves learning to conduct research. The benefit of this training is partially offset by continuing a tradition that is no longer viable. According to the established paradigm, beginning student researchers are expected to work alone to show that they are competent in carrying out all the phases of an investigation. But this practice poorly prepares graduates for employment where they will commonly be expected to solve problems by working with groups. It also gives rise to defensiveness about acknowledging personal limitations in the pursuit of complicated activities. My observation is that the interdependence that characterizes research team experience favorably influences productivity and enhances the ability to work effectively with colleagues. If faculty were commonly trained in collaborative research, they would work together more often, the contribution of their joint efforts would surpass the worth of individual initiatives, and greater priority would be given to the application of findings.

Graduate students should be given an opportunity to work on team projects supervised by their mentor or other faculty. For example, one of my current studies is field testing a new system for evaluating cooperative learning. The Peer and Self Evaluation System informs teachers about group interaction from the student point of view. Specifically, this system allows students to identify attitudes and skills shown by teammates and themselves in group work. Based on these observations, which are kept anonymous, each person receives confidential feedback about personal strengths and limitations. Graduate students also participate in my overseas studies. The purpose of these cross-cultural investigations is to find out how American (including African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic), Japanese, and Taiwanese parents of teenagers can become more effective in their guidance role and how grandparents can improve intergenerational relationships.

View Foreign Students as Colleagues Whose Differing Ideas Can Enrich Our Own
Universities have an obligation to educate people from many countries. Therefore, I encourage a global perspective in class. Foreign students report that they are frequently overlooked as resources. The usual excuses portray them as being shy, uncomfortable in using spoken English, or coming from places where their role at school was restricted to listening. They feel like outsiders so long as professors and graduate students are reluctant to engage them in dialogue. The loss is reciprocal because Americans forfeit opportunities for learning to appreciate cultural diversity. Foreign students are expected to join a heterogeneous team in my classes instead of clustering themselves in a segregated manner. During the first class meeting, students are told that I expect groups to integrate all of their members.

To introduce the perspective of students from other nations, I conduct a panel interview with them on a topic related to the course. For example, the interview might be about going to school and learning in their country. Students from Taiwan report that lecturing is the single method of instruction, and they do not ask questions in class because the professor would lose face if an answer was unknown. Understanding this custom helps to interpret the reticence of some Taiwanese to behave in a nontraditional way. Arranging for students from overseas to share their unique experiences and insights with the class is usually a way for American students to view them as colleagues whose differing ideas can enrich their own.

Provide Opportunities for Students to Become Involved with Publication
My growth and development determines what I can offer others. Accordingly, I read a lot and feel a sense of responsibility to contribute knowledge to my field. Debates regarding whether professors should strive to be good teachers, conduct research, or aspire to publish make little sense to me. I feel that teaching, research, and writing are all important. Writing is a powerful method of instruction because reading is one of the most common ways to learn. Publication is also implicated in research because dissemination is the final step of the process that enables scholars to communicate their findings to a broader audience. As a writer, I enjoy the privilege of teaching others who will never hear my voice, people I will never meet, men and women from distant countries, and some persons who may benefit from reading my ideas when I can no longer express them. I appreciate colleagues who are willing to review my thinking as expressed in manuscripts, and I try to communicate to graduate students how scholars gain from remaining open to such criticism. Doctoral candidates who assist me in preparing journal articles gain writing experience, develop confidence in their future, and receive credit as coauthors.

Realize that the Lessons of Mentors Usually Require Teaching by Example
Mentors are expected to offer guidance about dealing with hardships and identify the path that leads to success. This obligation requires spending a greater than usual amount of time with individuals. The lessons of mentors must be personal, because they involve establishing career goals and priorities, acquiring attitudes and skills not covered by the formal curriculum, and gaining insights about managing a work schedule that is more subject to personal discretion than is the case for most other professions. A stringent condition for mentors is that their lessons often must be communicated by example, showing the other person how something is done as the way to validate a recommendation or confirm the wisdom of some course of action. Students credit mentors as having a significant influence on them and several decades later report that their lessons were long lasting (Torrance 1984). I share this view-Paul Torrance of the University of Minnesota, Gordon Allport of Harvard University, and Sydney Pressey of The Ohio State University provided enduring examples for me of how to fulfill and enjoy the professor role.

I believe the amount of learning and rate of graduation can be improved by making additional mentors available for students and beginning faculty. This will be a difficult task, because professors do not become mentors by self-declaration or being assigned as an advisor. Students and new faculty decide who their mentors are after observing them demonstrate an optimistic attitude, readiness to listen and provide encouragement, eagerness to remain up-to-date, instructional methods that include an active role for learners, appreciation of cultural differences, commitment to team research, sharing of knowledge through publication, and willingness to teach about success in the work place by serving as an example.